Interesting Chemistry Research Areas

Discover fascinating chemistry research topics for your next project. From organic chemistry to materials science, find inspiration and insights in this guide.

Chemistry is the scientific study of the properties, structures, and behavior of matter and the changes it undergoes. It is a physical science that investigates the composition, properties, and reactions of matter at the molecular and atomic levels.

Chemistry is a broad field with many sub-disciplines, including organic chemistry, inorganic chemistry, physical chemistry, analytical chemistry, and biochemistry. Organic chemistry deals with the study of carbon-containing compounds, while inorganic chemistry focuses on non-carbon compounds. Physical chemistry deals with the application of physics principles to the study of chemical systems, and analytical chemistry deals with the development and use of methods to identify and quantify chemical compounds. Biochemistry is the study of the chemistry of living organisms.

Chemistry has many applications in various fields, including medicine, energy, materials science, and environmental science. Chemists work in many different industries, including pharmaceuticals, biotechnology, materials science, and energy production.

Overall, chemistry is a fundamental science that plays a critical role in understanding the world around us and developing new technologies and materials that can benefit society.

Chemistry is a vast field that encompasses a wide range of research areas. Here are some interesting research areas in chemistry:

1. Renewable energy: Chemistry plays a crucial role in developing and improving renewable energy technologies such as solar cells, fuel cells, and batteries.
2. Nanotechnology: Nanotechnology involves the study and manipulation of materials at the nanoscale. This research area has potential applications in medicine, electronics, and energy.
3. Materials science: The study of materials science involves the development of new materials with specific properties. These materials can be used in a wide range of applications, including electronics, transportation, and medicine.
4. Green chemistry: Green chemistry involves developing chemical processes that are more environmentally friendly, efficient, and sustainable.
5. Drug discovery: Chemists play a critical role in the discovery and development of new drugs. This research area involves the design, synthesis, and testing of new compounds that can be used to treat diseases.
6. Synthetic biology: Synthetic biology involves the design and construction of new biological systems that have specific functions. This research area has potential applications in medicine, agriculture, and biotechnology.
7. Environmental chemistry: Environmental chemistry involves the study of the chemical processes that occur in the environment. This research area includes the study of pollution, climate change, and natural resource management.
8. Computational chemistry: Computational chemistry involves the use of computer simulations to study chemical reactions and properties. This research area has applications in drug discovery, materials science, and many other areas of chemistry.
9. Analytical chemistry: Analytical chemistry involves the development and use of methods to identify and quantify chemical compounds. This research area has applications in environmental monitoring, forensic science, and drug testing.
10. Food chemistry: Food chemistry involves the study of the chemical processes that occur in food. This research area includes the study of food additives, food safety, and the nutritional value of food.

Renewable energy

Renewable energy is energy derived from natural sources that are replenished at a higher rate than they are consumed. Sunlight and wind, for example, are such sources that are constantly being replenished. Renewable energy sources are plentiful and all around us.

Renewable energy is energy that is derived from natural sources that can be replenished over time, such as sunlight, wind, water, and geothermal heat. The development of renewable energy technologies is crucial for reducing reliance on fossil fuels, reducing greenhouse gas emissions, and mitigating climate change.

Chemistry plays a crucial role in the development and improvement of renewable energy technologies. For example, solar cells convert sunlight into electricity, and chemists are developing new materials and improving the efficiency of energy conversion processes in these devices. Fuel cells, which convert hydrogen into electricity and emit only water as a byproduct, are another example of renewable energy technology that chemists are working to improve.

Chemists are also working on the development of better energy storage systems, such as batteries, that can store energy from renewable sources and make it available for use when the sun is not shining or the wind is not blowing.

Furthermore, chemistry is essential for the production and optimization of biofuels, which are fuels produced from renewable organic materials such as corn, sugar cane, and algae. Biofuels have the potential to reduce greenhouse gas emissions and dependence on fossil fuels.

Overall, renewable energy is a critical area of research, and chemistry plays a vital role in the development of new technologies and materials that can help to address the world’s energy needs in a sustainable and environmentally responsible manner.

SOLAR ENERGY

Solar energy is the most abundant of all energy resources and can even be harnessed in cloudy weather. The rate at which solar energy is intercepted by the Earth is about 10,000 times greater than the rate at which humankind consumes energy.

Solar technologies can deliver heat, cooling, natural lighting, electricity, and fuels for a host of applications. Solar technologies convert sunlight into electrical energy either through photovoltaic panels or through mirrors that concentrate solar radiation.

Although not all countries are equally endowed with solar energy, a significant contribution to the energy mix from direct solar energy is possible for every country.

The cost of manufacturing solar panels has plummeted dramatically in the last decade, making them not only affordable but often the cheapest form of electricity. Solar panels have a lifespan of roughly 30 years, and come in variety of shades depending on the type of material used in manufacturing.

Solar energy is a form of renewable energy that is derived from the sun’s radiation. It is a clean and sustainable energy source that can be harnessed through various technologies to provide electricity, heating, and cooling for residential, commercial, and industrial applications. In this answer, we will discuss the different types of solar technologies, their benefits, and challenges.

1. Photovoltaic (PV) cells:

Photovoltaic cells, also known as solar cells, convert sunlight directly into electricity. They are made of semiconductor materials, such as silicon, that absorb photons and release electrons. When these electrons are collected and sent through a circuit, they create a flow of electricity. PV cells can be used to power anything from small electronic devices to entire homes or buildings. They can also be combined into large-scale solar farms to generate electricity for the grid.

Advantages of PV cells:

• PV cells are modular and can be easily scaled up or down to meet different energy demands.
• They have no moving parts, so they require little maintenance and have a long lifespan.
• They produce no emissions or pollutants during operation, making them a clean energy source.

Challenges of PV cells:

• PV cells are expensive to manufacture, install, and maintain.
• Their efficiency is affected by factors such as temperature and shading, which can reduce their output.
• They produce electricity only when sunlight is available, making them intermittent.

2. Solar thermal collectors:

Solar thermal collectors, also called solar water heaters, use the sun’s energy to heat water for space heating or hot water. They consist of a flat plate collector that absorbs sunlight and a storage tank that stores the heated water. The collected energy is transferred to the water through conduction.

Advantages of solar thermal collectors:

• They are highly efficient in converting sunlight into heat, making them a cost-effective way to heat water.
• They have low maintenance costs and a long lifespan.
• They can reduce energy bills and greenhouse gas emissions associated with heating water.

Challenges of solar thermal collectors:

• They require space for installation, and the size of the collector and storage tank must be matched to the demand for hot water.
• They are dependent on sunlight and can provide less heat on cloudy days.
• They may require a backup heating system, such as a gas or electric heater, to provide hot water during periods of low solar radiation.

3. Concentrated solar power (CSP) systems:

Concentrated solar power (CSP) systems use mirrors or lenses to focus sunlight onto a small area, producing heat that can be used to generate electricity. The concentrated heat is used to produce steam, which drives a turbine to generate electricity. CSP systems can also incorporate thermal storage to provide electricity even when sunlight is not available.

Advantages of CSP systems:

• They can provide large-scale, centralized electricity generation, making them a potential alternative to fossil fuel power plants.
• They can store thermal energy, allowing for electricity production even when sunlight is not available.
• They can reduce greenhouse gas emissions and other pollutants associated with conventional power generation.

Challenges of CSP systems:

• They require large amounts of land for installation and are expensive to build and maintain.
• They are dependent on sunlight and can produce less electricity on cloudy days.
• They can cause environmental impacts, such as habitat loss and water use, if not properly sited and managed.

Overall, solar energy is a promising source of clean and renewable energy that can help reduce greenhouse gas emissions and dependence on fossil fuels. However, it is important to consider the costs, benefits, and challenges of different solar technologies to determine their suitability for specific applications. Ongoing research and development in solar energy are also critical to improving efficiency and reducing costs.

WIND ENERGY

Wind energy harnesses the kinetic energy of moving air by using large wind turbines located on land (onshore) or in sea- or freshwater (offshore). Wind energy has been used for millennia, but onshore and offshore wind energy technologies have evolved over the last few years to maximize the electricity produced – with taller turbines and larger rotor diameters.

Though average wind speeds vary considerably by location, the world’s technical potential for wind energy exceeds global electricity production, and ample potential exists in most regions of the world to enable significant wind energy deployment.

Many parts of the world have strong wind speeds, but the best locations for generating wind power are sometimes remote ones. Offshore wind power offers tremendous potential.

Wind energy is a form of renewable energy that is produced by harnessing the power of wind to generate electricity. Wind turbines are used to convert the kinetic energy of wind into mechanical energy that can be used to generate electricity. In this answer, we will discuss the different types of wind turbines, their benefits, and challenges.

1. Horizontal-axis wind turbines (HAWT):

Horizontal-axis wind turbines, also known as HAWT, are the most common type of wind turbine. They consist of a rotor with two or three blades that rotate around a horizontal axis, and a generator that converts the mechanical energy into electrical energy.

Advantages of HAWT:

• They are efficient at capturing wind energy, making them a cost-effective way to generate electricity.
• They can be used for both small-scale and large-scale applications, from residential to commercial and utility-scale wind farms.
• They can be sited on land or offshore, depending on the location and availability of wind resources.

Challenges of HAWT:

• They can cause noise pollution and visual impacts, especially if installed near residential areas.
• They may pose risks to birds and bats, which can collide with the rotating blades.
• They can be affected by the variability of wind resources, which can reduce their output and require backup power sources.

2. Vertical-axis wind turbines (VAWT):

Vertical-axis wind turbines, also known as VAWT, have a rotor that rotates around a vertical axis. They can have various shapes, including eggbeater, Darrieus, and Savonius.

Advantages of VAWT:

• They are compact and can be installed in urban areas where space is limited.
• They can capture wind energy from any direction, making them more versatile than HAWT.
• They have a low profile and are less visible than HAWT.

Challenges of VAWT:

• They have lower efficiency compared to HAWT, which can make them less cost-effective.
• They can be more expensive to manufacture and maintain.
• They can cause vibration and noise, which can be disruptive to nearby residents.

3. Offshore wind turbines:

Offshore wind turbines are located in coastal waters or the ocean, where wind resources are stronger and more consistent than on land. They are typically larger than onshore wind turbines and are anchored to the seabed.

Advantages of offshore wind turbines:

• They can capture stronger and more consistent wind resources, making them more efficient and cost-effective than onshore wind turbines.
• They can be located closer to population centers, reducing transmission costs and visual impacts.
• They can have lower environmental impacts than onshore wind turbines, as they are less visible and have less impact on wildlife habitats.

Challenges of offshore wind turbines:

• They require more expensive installation and maintenance procedures than onshore wind turbines.
• They can cause navigation and fishing hazards, which can affect the marine industry.
• They can be affected by extreme weather events, such as storms and hurricanes.

Overall, wind energy is a promising source of clean and renewable energy that can help reduce greenhouse gas emissions and dependence on fossil fuels. However, it is important to consider the costs, benefits, and challenges of different wind turbine technologies to determine their suitability for specific applications. Ongoing research and development in wind energy are also critical to improving efficiency and reducing costs.

Advantages of Wind Power

• Wind power creates good-paying jobs. There are over 120,000 people working in the U.S. wind industry across all 50 states, and that number continues to grow. According to the U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, wind turbine service technicians are the second fastest growing U.S. job of the decade. Offering career opportunities ranging from blade fabricator to asset manager, the wind industry has the potential to support hundreds of thousands of more jobs by 2050.
• Wind power is a domestic resource that enables U.S. economic growth. In 2021, wind turbines operating in all 50 states generated more than 9% of the net total of the country’s energy. That same year, investments in new wind projects added $20 billion to the U.S. economy.
• Wind power is a clean and renewable energy source. Wind turbines harness energy from the wind using mechanical power to spin a generator and create electricity. Not only is wind an abundant and inexhaustible resource, but it also provides electricity without burning any fuel or polluting the air. Wind continues to be the largest source of renewable power in the United States, which helps reduce our reliance on fossil fuels. Wind energy helps avoid 329 million metric tons of carbon dioxide emissions annually – equivalent to 71 million cars worth of emissions that along with other atmospheric emissions cause acid rain, smog, and greenhouse gases.
• Wind power benefits local communities. Wind projects deliver an estimated $1.9 billion in state and local tax payments and land-lease payments each year. Communities that develop wind energy can use the extra revenue to put towards school budgets, reduce the tax burden on homeowners, and address local infrastructure projects.
• Wind power is cost-effective. Land-based, utility-scale wind turbines provide one of the lowest-priced energy sources available today. Furthermore, wind energy’s cost competitiveness continues to improve with advances in the science and technology of wind energy.
• Wind turbines work in different settings. Wind energy generation fits well in agricultural and multi-use working landscapes. Wind energy is easily integrated in rural or remote areas, such as farms and ranches or coastal and island communities, where high-quality wind resources are often found.

Challenges of Wind Power

• Wind power must compete with other low-cost energy sources. When comparing the cost of energy associated with new power plants, wind and solar projects are now more economically competitive than gas, geothermal, coal, or nuclear facilities. However, wind projects may not be cost-competitive in some locations that are not windy enough. Next-generation technology, manufacturing improvements, and a better understanding of wind plant physics can help bring costs down even more.
• Ideal wind sites are often in remote locations. Installation challenges must be overcome to bring electricity from wind farms to urban areas, where it is needed to meet demand. Upgrading the nation’s transmission network to connect areas with abundant wind resources to population centers could significantly reduce the costs of expanding land-based wind energy. In addition, offshore wind energy transmission and grid interconnection capabilities are improving.
• Turbines produce noise and alter visual aesthetics. Wind farms have different impacts on the environment compared to conventional power plants, but similar concerns exist over both the noise produced by the turbine blades and the visual impacts on the landscape.
• Wind plants can impact local wildlife. Although wind projects rank lower than other energy developments in terms of wildlife impacts, research is still needed to minimize wind-wildlife interactions. Advancements in technologies, properly siting wind plants, and ongoing environmental research are working to reduce the impact of wind turbines on wildlife.

GEOTHERMAL ENERGY

Geothermal energy utilizes the accessible thermal energy from the Earth’s interior. Heat is extracted from geothermal reservoirs using wells or other means.

Reservoirs that are naturally sufficiently hot and permeable are called hydrothermal reservoirs, whereas reservoirs that are sufficiently hot but that are improved with hydraulic stimulation are called enhanced geothermal systems.

Once at the surface, fluids of various temperatures can be used to generate electricity. The technology for electricity generation from hydrothermal reservoirs is mature and reliable, and has been operating for more than 100 years.

Geothermal energy is a form of renewable energy that is produced by harnessing the natural heat of the Earth’s interior to generate electricity. The Earth’s heat is generated by the decay of radioactive elements and the residual heat from the planet’s formation. In this answer, we will discuss the different types of geothermal systems, their benefits, and challenges.

1. Geothermal power plants:

Geothermal power plants use steam or hot water from underground reservoirs to power turbines and generate electricity. There are three types of geothermal power plants: dry steam, flash steam, and binary cycle.

• Dry steam power plants use steam that is produced directly from geothermal reservoirs to drive turbines and generate electricity.
• Flash steam power plants use hot water from geothermal reservoirs that is flashed to steam at a lower pressure to drive turbines and generate electricity.
• Binary cycle power plants use low-temperature geothermal resources that are not hot enough to generate steam. Instead, the hot water is used to heat a secondary fluid that vaporizes and drives turbines to generate electricity.

Advantages of geothermal power plants:

• They are reliable and can provide baseload power, which means they can operate continuously and provide a steady supply of electricity.
• They have low greenhouse gas emissions and do not produce air pollution or waste products.
• They can be located in areas with high geothermal resources, reducing transmission costs and dependence on fossil fuels.

Challenges of geothermal power plants:

• They require specific geologic conditions to be economically viable, such as access to high-temperature reservoirs.
• They can cause land subsidence and seismic activity, which can affect nearby infrastructure and communities.
• They can have high initial costs and require ongoing maintenance and drilling operations.

2. Geothermal heat pumps:

Geothermal heat pumps use the stable temperature of the Earth’s subsurface to heat and cool buildings. They circulate a fluid through a buried loop system that absorbs heat from the ground in the winter and releases heat into the ground in the summer.

Heating and cooling is achieved through a geothermal heat pump system, which is made up of three main parts: the heat pump unit, the ground heat exchanger, and the air delivery system or ductwork. The heat exchanger encompasses a series of pipes known as loop, which is installed a few feet beneath the earth close to the building. A fluid (a combination of water and antifreeze) circulates through the series of pipes to suck up or disseminate heat into the ground. The fluid is usually blended with antifreeze to prevent freezing during winter.

The working of a geothermal heat pump has a lot in common with a refrigerator. A refrigerator makes a cool place (interior of the refrigerator) much cooler by transmitting heat to a significantly warm place (the area surrounding the interior of the refrigerator), allowing it to become warmer.

During winter, the geothermal heat pump extracts heat from the ground heat exchanger and channels it to the building’s air transfer system, which keeps the house warm and comfortable. During summer, the cycle is reversed. The geothermal heat pump extracts heat from the air inside the building and transfers it into the ground heat exchanger. The heat exchanger dumps the heat into the earth. The heat extracted from inside the building in the summer can be utilized to heat water, providing homeowner free hot water throughout summer.

Geothermal heat pumps are far more advantageous than traditional heating and cooling systems because they tap natural, free heat under the ground. They also operate at peak efficiency when cooling your home. Efficient operation is good for the homeowner as it saves energy, money and minimizes environmental degradation through pollution.

Geothermal heat pumps not only save energy and money but also help in reducing air pollution. They are also more efficient in cooling of the house.

Types of Geothermal Heat Pumps

Geothermal heat pump systems come in 4 main types; closed looped systems, open looped systems, pond or lake systems and hybrid systems.  Closed looped systems are further subdivided into two: horizontal and vertical. Let’s look at them in detail:

1. Closed-loop systems

Closed-loop systems are made of heavy plastic loops that allow the liquid to circulate through. The closed loops are typically buried a few feet below the ground, or submerged in a water body. The closed loop system consists of a heat exchanger, which coordinates the exchange of heat between the refrigerant, fluid and the heat pump in the closed loop. The closed loop system is further subdivided into;

Horizontal closed loop

These types of closed loop systems are ideal for large area of land. They are cost-effective and are commonly installed in residential areas, more so for new constructions where adequate land is available. Horizontal closed loop systems need trenches at least four feet deep. There are different configurations of horizontal closed loops, but the most predominant utilize two pipes. The first pipe is normally buried about six feet below the ground, while the other at four feet. Another popular configuration utilizes two pipes laid next to each other, 5 feet below the ground, in a two-foot-wide trench. This kind of looping enables installation of more pipes inside a narrow and shorter trench, which greatly minimizes installation costs and allow for horizontal installation in sites that are not suitable for traditional horizontal applications.

Vertical closed loop

Vertical closed loop systems are popular in offices, schools, and commercial establishments where space is quite limited. Essentially, the size of the land cannot allow for horizontal loop installation. Vertical closed loops are also applied in areas where the soil is not deep enough for trenching, and they are advantageous since they reduce the impact on landscaping. For this kind of geothermal heat pump, two vertical loops that are bent in U-shaped are placed into small holes (four inches in diameter, 100 to 400 feet deep, and 2 feet apart) into the ground. These vertical loops are then connected to each other using horizontal loops.

2. Pond or lake system

Most properties have a pond or lake nearby. A closed system can be installed under this water body. Coiled pipes are installed underneath the water body at least eight feet below to mitigate the possibility of freezing. Nevertheless, the pond or lake must meet certain criteria regarding minimum volume, depth, and quality requirements before it can be considered a prime location for geothermal heat pump.

3. Open loop systems

This type of geothermal heat pump is ideal for those with sufficient supply of groundwater. It utilizes this ground water as a ground heat exchanger and navigates the whole system. It’s transferred back to the ground by a means called surface recharge or recharge well. When out there looking to buy an open loop geothermal heat pump, ensure you have sufficient and clean groundwater supply since it’s a local code and regulation requirement.

4. Hybrid systems

Hybrid system is a blend of geothermal heat pump, and air source heat pumps to offer a cost-effective and highly efficient system. They leverage the fact that setting up heating and cooling loads is not entirely balanced, with cooling dictating proceedings on numerous occasions because of internal gains. Instead of upsizing the heat exchanger to conform to higher cooling load, it is remodeled to conform to the heating load, and a heat rejector is incorporated into the system. Hybrid systems still get rid of boilers and deployment of fossil fuels, while minimizing the land area and the onset costs needed to set up the ground heat exchanger.

Advantages of geothermal heat pumps:

• They are highly efficient and can reduce energy consumption and costs for heating and cooling buildings.
• They can be used for both residential and commercial buildings.
• They have a long lifespan and require minimal maintenance.

Challenges of geothermal heat pumps:

• They require a specific geologic setting, such as a certain depth and soil type, to be effective.
• They can have high initial costs, although they can provide long-term cost savings.
• They can require a large area for installation, which may not be feasible in some urban areas.

Overall, geothermal energy is a promising source of clean and renewable energy that can help reduce greenhouse gas emissions and dependence on fossil fuels. However, it is important to consider the costs, benefits, and challenges of different geothermal technologies to determine their suitability for specific applications. Ongoing research and development in geothermal energy are also critical to improving efficiency and reducing costs.

Benefits of Geothermal Energy

Renewable—The heat flowing from Earth’s interior is continually replenished by the decay of naturally occurring radioactive elements and will remain available for billions of years.

Baseload—Geothermal power plants produce electricity consistently and can run essentially 24 hours per day/7 days per week, regardless of weather conditions.

Domestic—U.S. geothermal resources can be harnessed for power production without importing fuel.

Small footprint—Geothermal power plants are compact. They use less land per gigawatt-hour (404 m²) than comparable-capacity coal (3,642 m²), wind (1,335 m²), and solar photovoltaic (PV) power stations (3,237 m²)*.

Clean—Modern closed-loop geothermal power plants emit no greenhouse gasses and have life cycle emissions four times lower than solar PV, and six to 20 times lower than natural gas. Geothermal power plants consume less water on average over the lifetime energy output than most conventional electricity-generation technologies**. 

U.S. Geothermal Growth Potential

The 2019 GeoVision analysis indicates potential for up to 60 gigawatts of electricity-generating capacity, more than 17,000 district heating systems, and up to 28 million geothermal heat pumps by 2050. If we realize those maximum projections across sectors, it would be the emissions reduction equivalent of taking 26 million cars off U.S. roads every year. 

U.S. Department of Energy Geothermal Technologies Office

The U.S. Department of Energy (DOE) Geothermal Technologies Office (GTO) focuses on realizing the potential to generate electricity and produce heating and cooling for U.S. homes from clean, domestic geothermal resources. To do so, GTO works in partnership with industry, academia, the DOE’s national laboratories, and others on research, development, and demonstration activities focused on these areas:

• Enhanced Geothermal Systems
• Hydrothermal Resources
• Low-Temperature and Coproduced Resources
• Data, Modeling, and Analysis

What Does GTO Do?

1. GTO receives taxpayer money, appropriated to GTO by Congress ($110M in 2021). 
2. To ensure money is released the right way, GTO reaches out to diverse stakeholders for strategic direction and planning (typically public/private companies, municipalities, universities, and national laboratories). 
3. GTO makes these plans available to the public. 
4. GTO offers the public opportunities to receive funding for geothermal projects. Entities apply, and after a GTO review and negotiation, GTO selects projects and releases funding to those entities. These projects may perform research, development, and demonstration activities that will drive more geothermal use.
5. GTO then monitors how the entities spend those funds.
6. Finally, GTO releases public data and reports, and hosts events showcasing the projects’ results and progress for broad accessibility.

The federal government invests in geothermal because it supplies clean, renewable power around the clock, emits little or no greenhouse gases, and takes a very small environmental footprint to develop. It also offers a low-carbon way to heat and cool buildings. 

Geothermal power is considered to be renewable because any projected heat extraction is small compared to the Earth’s heat content. The Earth has an internal heat content of 10³¹ joules (3·10¹⁵ TWh), approximately 100 billion times the 2010 worldwide annual energy consumption. About 20% of this is residual heat from planetary accretion; the remainder is attributed to past and current radioactive decay of naturally occurring isotopes. For example, a 5275 m deep borehole in United Downs Deep Geothermal Power Project in Cornwall, England, found granite with very high thorium content, whose radioactive decay is believed to power the high temperature of the rock.

Natural heat flows are not in equilibrium, and the planet is slowly cooling down on geologic timescales. Human extraction taps a minute fraction of the natural outflow, often without accelerating it. According to most official descriptions of geothermal energy use, it is currently called renewable and sustainable because it returns an equal volume of water to the area that the heat extraction takes place, but at a somewhat lower temperature. For instance, the water leaving the ground is 300 degrees, and the water returning is 200 degrees, the energy obtained is the difference in heat that is extracted. Current research estimates of impact on the heat loss from the Earth’s core are based on a studies done up through 2012. However, if household and industrial uses of this energy source were to expand dramatically over coming years, based on a diminishing fossil fuel supply and a growing world population that is rapidly industrializing requiring additional energy sources, then the estimates on the impact on the Earth’s cooling rate would need to be re-evaluated.

Geothermal power is also considered to be sustainable thanks to its power to sustain the Earth’s intricate ecosystems. By using geothermal sources of energy present generations of humans will not endanger the capability of future generations to use their own resources to the same amount that those energy sources are presently used. Further, due to its low emissions geothermal energy is considered to have excellent potential for mitigation of global warming. Iceland has so much geothermal energy that even the sidewalks in Reykjavik are heated with it. In winter, this saves the need for gritting.

Even though geothermal power is globally sustainable, extraction must still be monitored to avoid local depletion.Over the course of decades, individual wells draw down local temperatures and water levels until a new equilibrium is reached with natural flows. The three oldest sites, at Larderello, Wairakei, and the Geysers have experienced reduced output because of local depletion. Heat and water, in uncertain proportions, were extracted faster than they were replenished. If production is reduced and water is reinjected, these wells could theoretically recover their full potential. Such mitigation strategies have already been implemented at some sites. The long-term sustainability of geothermal energy has been demonstrated at the Lardarello field in Italy since 1913, at the Wairakei field in New Zealand since 1958,and at The Geysers field in California since 1960.

Falling electricity production may be boosted through drilling additional supply boreholes, as at Poihipi and Ohaaki. The Wairakei power station has been running much longer, with its first unit commissioned in November 1958, and it attained its peak generation of 173 MW in 1965, but already the supply of high-pressure steam was faltering, in 1982 being derated to intermediate pressure and the station managing 157 MW. Around the start of the 21st century it was managing about 150 MW, then in 2005 two 8 MW isopentane systems were added, boosting the station’s output by about 14 MW. Detailed data are unavailable, being lost due to re-organisations. One such re-organisation in 1996 causes the absence of early data for Poihipi (started 1996), and the gap in 1996/7 for Wairakei and Ohaaki; half-hourly data for Ohaaki’s first few months of operation are also missing, as well as for most of Wairakei’s history.

Environmental effects

Fluids drawn from the deep Earth carry a mixture of gasses, notably carbon dioxide (CO
₂), hydrogen sulfide (H
₂S), methane (CH
₄) and ammonia (NH
₃). These pollutants contribute to global warming, acid rain, and noxious smells if released. Existing geothermal electric plants emit an average of 122 kilograms (269 lb) of CO
₂ per megawatt-hour (MW·h) of electricity, a small fraction of the emission intensity of conventional fossil fuel plants.^{[53][needs update]} But a few plants emit more than gas-fired power, at least in the first few years, such as some geothermal power in Turkey.Plants that experience high levels of acids and volatile chemicals are usually equipped with emission-control systems to reduce the exhaust.

In addition to dissolved gases, hot water from geothermal sources may hold in solution trace amounts of toxic elements such as mercury, arsenic, boron, and antimony. These chemicals precipitate as the water cools, and can cause environmental damage if released. The modern practice of injecting cooled geothermal fluids back into the Earth to stimulate production has the side benefit of reducing this environmental risk.

Plant construction can adversely affect land stability. Subsidence has occurred in the Wairakei field in New Zealand. In Staufen im Breisgau, Germany, tectonic uplift occurred instead, due to a previously isolated anhydrite layer coming in contact with water and turning into gypsum, doubling its volume.^[56][57][58] Enhanced geothermal systems can trigger earthquakes as part of hydraulic fracturing. The project in Basel, Switzerland was suspended because more than 10,000 seismic events measuring up to 3.4 on the Richter Scale occurred over the first 6 days of water injection.

Geothermal has minimal land and freshwater requirements. Geothermal plants use 3.5 square kilometres (1.4 sq mi) per gigawatt of electrical production (not capacity) versus 32 square kilometres (12 sq mi) and 12 square kilometres (4.6 sq mi) for coal facilities and wind farms respectively.They use 20 litres (5.3 US gal) of freshwater per MW·h versus over 1,000 litres (260 US gal) per MW·h for nuclear, coal, or oil.

HYDROPOWER

Hydropower harnesses the energy of water moving from higher to lower elevations. It can be generated from reservoirs and rivers. Reservoir hydropower plants rely on stored water in a reservoir, while run-of-river hydropower plants harness energy from the available flow of the river.

Hydropower reservoirs often have multiple uses – providing drinking water, water for irrigation, flood and drought control, navigation services, as well as energy supply.

Hydropower currently is the largest source of renewable energy in the electricity sector. It relies on generally stable rainfall patterns, and can be negatively impacted by climate-induced droughts or changes to ecosystems which impact rainfall patterns.

The infrastructure needed to create hydropower can also impact on ecosystems in adverse ways. For this reason, many consider small-scale hydro a more environmentally-friendly option, and especially suitable for communities in remote locations.

Hydropower, or hydroelectric power, is one of the oldest and largest sources of renewable energy, which uses the natural flow of moving water to generate electricity. Hydropower currently accounts for 31.5% of total U.S. renewable electricity generation and about 6.3% of total U.S. electricity generation.

While most people might associate the energy source with the Hoover Dam—a huge facility harnessing the power of an entire river behind its wall—hydropower facilities come in all sizes. Some may be very large, but they can be tiny, too, taking advantage of water flows in municipal water facilities or irrigation ditches. They can even be “damless,” with diversions or run-of-river facilities that channel part of a stream through a powerhouse before the water rejoins the main river. Whatever the method, hydropower is much easier to obtain and more widely used than most people realize. In fact, all but two states (Delaware and Mississippi) use hydropower for electricity, some more than others. For example, in 2020 about 66% of the state of Washington’s electricity came from hydropower. 

HOW DOES HYDROPOWER WORK?

Hydropower technologies generate power by using the elevation difference,  created by a dam or diversion structure, of water flowing in on one side and out, far below, on the other. The Department of Energy’s “Hydropower 101” video explains how hydropower works and highlights some of the research and development efforts of the Water Power Technologies Office (WPTO) in this area.

WHAT IS THE COST OF HYDROPOWER?

Hydropower is an affordable source of electricity that costs less than most. Since hydropower relies only on the energy from moving water, states that get the majority of their electricity from hydropower, like Idaho, Washington, and Oregon, have lower energy bills than the rest of the country.  

Compared to other electricity sources, hydropower also has relatively low costs throughout the duration of a full project lifetime in terms of maintenance, operations, and fuel. Like any major energy source, significant upfront costs are unavoidable, but hydropower’s longer lifespan spreads these costs out over time. Additionally, the equipment used at hydropower facilities often operates for longer periods of time without needing replacements or repairs, saving money in the long term.

The installation costs for large hydropower facilities consist mostly of civil construction works (such as the building of the dams, tunnels, and other necessary infrastructure) and electromechanical equipment costs (electricity-generating machinery). Since hydropower is a site-specific technology, these costs can be minimized at the planning stage through proper selection of location and design.

WHAT ARE THE BENEFITS OF HYDROPOWER?

The benefits of hydropower have been recognized and harnessed for thousands of years. In addition to being a clean and cost-effective form of energy, hydropower plants can provide power to the grid immediately, serving as a flexible and reliable form of backup power during major electricity outages or disruptions. Hydropower also produces a number of benefits outside of electricity generation, such as flood control, irrigation support, and water supply.

WHAT IS THE HISTORY OF HYDROPOWER?

The history of hydropower dates back thousands of years. For example, the Greeks used water wheels to grind wheat into flour more than 2,000 years ago. The evolution of the modern hydropower turbine began in the mid-1700s when a French hydraulic and military engineer, Bernard Forest de Bélidor, wrote Architecture Hydraulique. Many key developments in hydropower technology occurred during the first half of the 19th century, and more recently, the past century has seen a number of hydroelectric advancements that have helped hydropower become an integral part of the renewable energy mix in the United States.

Hydropower is a form of renewable energy that harnesses the power of flowing water to generate electricity. In this answer, we will discuss the different types of hydropower systems, their benefits, and challenges.

1. Conventional hydropower:

Conventional hydropower systems use dams to store and release water to drive turbines and generate electricity. Water is released from the reservoir through the dam, which causes the turbines to spin and generate electricity.

Advantages of conventional hydropower:

• They are reliable and can provide baseload power, which means they can operate continuously and provide a steady supply of electricity.
• They have low greenhouse gas emissions and do not produce air pollution or waste products.
• They can also provide flood control, irrigation, and recreation opportunities.

Challenges of conventional hydropower:

• They can cause environmental impacts, such as the displacement of wildlife and changes to water temperature and flow.
• They require specific geological and hydrological conditions to be economically viable, such as access to water resources and suitable terrain.
• They can have high initial costs and require ongoing maintenance and upgrades.

2. Pumped storage hydropower:

Pumped storage hydropower systems use two reservoirs at different elevations to store and generate electricity. During periods of low electricity demand, excess power is used to pump water from the lower reservoir to the upper reservoir. During periods of high electricity demand, water is released from the upper reservoir to the lower reservoir, spinning turbines and generating electricity.

Advantages of pumped storage hydropower:

• They are highly efficient and can respond quickly to changes in electricity demand, providing valuable grid stability and backup power.
• They can also provide ancillary services, such as frequency regulation and voltage control.
• They have low greenhouse gas emissions and do not produce air pollution or waste products.

Challenges of pumped storage hydropower:

• They require specific geological and hydrological conditions to be economically viable, such as access to water resources and suitable terrain.
• They can have high initial costs and require ongoing maintenance and upgrades.
• They can also cause environmental impacts, such as changes to water temperature and flow.

3. Run-of-river hydropower:

Run-of-river hydropower systems use the natural flow of a river to drive turbines and generate electricity. Unlike conventional hydropower, run-of-river systems do not require the construction of a large reservoir or dam.

Advantages of run-of-river hydropower:

• They have low environmental impacts, as they do not require the construction of large dams and reservoirs.
• They can provide baseload power and respond quickly to changes in electricity demand.
• They have low greenhouse gas emissions and do not produce air pollution or waste products.

Challenges of run-of-river hydropower:

• They require specific hydrological conditions to be economically viable, such as consistent and reliable flow rates.
• They can have high initial costs and require ongoing maintenance and upgrades.
• They can also cause environmental impacts, such as changes to water temperature and flow.

Overall, hydropower is a promising source of clean and renewable energy that can help reduce greenhouse gas emissions and dependence on fossil fuels. However, it is important to consider the costs, benefits, and challenges of different hydropower technologies to determine their suitability for specific applications. Ongoing research and development in hydropower are also critical to improving efficiency and reducing costs.

OCEAN ENERGY

Ocean energy derives from technologies that use the kinetic and thermal energy of seawater – waves or currents for instance –  to produce electricity or heat.

Ocean energy systems are still at an early stage of development, with a number of prototype wave and tidal current devices being explored. The theoretical potential for ocean energy easily exceeds present human energy requirements.

What is ocean energy?

Ocean energy refers to all forms of renewable energy derived from the sea. There are three main types of ocean technology: wave, tidal and ocean thermal.

All forms of energy from the ocean are still at an early stage of commercialisation. Wave energy remains more costly than the other ocean technologies. Tidal range (see explanation below) has been deployed in locations globally where there is a strong tidal resource (for example La Rance in France, Sihwa in South Korea), while tidal stream (see below) has been demonstrated at pilot scale.

How does it work?

Wave energy is generated by converting the energy within ocean waves (swells) into electricity. There are many different wave energy technologies being developed and trialled to convert wave energy into electricity.

Tidal energy comes in two forms, both of which generate electricity:

• Tidal range technologies harvest the potential energy created by the height difference between high and low tides. Barrages (dams) harvest tidal energy from different ranges.
• Tidal stream (or current) technologies capture the kinetic energy of currents flowing in and out of tidal areas (such as seashores). Tidal stream devices operate in arrays, similar to wind turbines.

Ocean thermal energy is generated by converting the temperature difference between the ocean’s surface water and deeper water into energy. Ocean thermal energy conversion (OTEC) plants may be land-based as well as floating or grazing.

Ocean energy is a form of renewable energy that harnesses the power of the ocean’s waves, tides, currents, and temperature gradients to generate electricity. There are different types of ocean energy systems, including:

1. Wave energy:

Wave energy systems use the motion of waves to generate electricity. The most common technology used for wave energy is the oscillating water column (OWC), which uses the movement of waves to push air in and out of a chamber, which drives a turbine and generates electricity.

Advantages of wave energy:

• They have low greenhouse gas emissions and do not produce air pollution or waste products.
• They can provide a predictable and reliable source of electricity, as waves are constant and consistent.
• They can also provide a range of other benefits, such as desalination and water pumping.

Challenges of wave energy:

• They can be expensive to install and maintain, and require specific conditions to be economically viable, such as access to consistent and reliable waves.
• They can also cause environmental impacts, such as the displacement of marine wildlife and changes to wave patterns.

2. Tidal energy:

Tidal energy systems use the rise and fall of tides to generate electricity. The most common technology used for tidal energy is the tidal turbine, which operates similarly to a wind turbine, but is submerged in water.

Advantages of tidal energy:

• They have low greenhouse gas emissions and do not produce air pollution or waste products.
• They can provide a predictable and reliable source of electricity, as tides are constant and consistent.
• They can also provide a range of other benefits, such as flood control and navigation improvements.

Challenges of tidal energy:

• They can be expensive to install and maintain, and require specific conditions to be economically viable, such as access to consistent and reliable tides.
• They can also cause environmental impacts, such as changes to water flow and the displacement of marine wildlife.

3. Ocean currents energy:

Ocean currents energy systems use the flow of ocean currents to generate electricity. The most common technology used for ocean currents energy is the horizontal-axis tidal turbine, which operates similarly to a wind turbine, but is designed to withstand the strong and consistent currents of the ocean.

Advantages of ocean currents energy:

• They have low greenhouse gas emissions and do not produce air pollution or waste products.
• They can provide a predictable and reliable source of electricity, as ocean currents are constant and consistent.
• They can also provide a range of other benefits, such as improved navigation and fishery opportunities.

Challenges of ocean currents energy:

• They can be expensive to install and maintain, and require specific conditions to be economically viable, such as access to consistent and reliable ocean currents.
• They can also cause environmental impacts, such as the displacement of marine wildlife and changes to water flow.

4. Ocean thermal energy:

Ocean thermal energy systems use the temperature difference between warm surface water and cold deep water to generate electricity. The most common technology used for ocean thermal energy is the closed-cycle system, which uses a fluid that boils at a low temperature to drive a turbine and generate electricity.

Advantages of ocean thermal energy:

• They have low greenhouse gas emissions and do not produce air pollution or waste products.
• They can provide a predictable and reliable source of electricity, as the temperature difference between warm surface water and cold deep water is constant and consistent.
• They can also provide a range of other benefits, such as desalination and air conditioning.

Challenges of ocean thermal energy:

• They can be expensive to install and maintain, and require specific conditions to be economically viable, such as access to warm surface water and cold deep water.
• They can also cause environmental impacts, such as changes to water temperature and the displacement of marine wildlife.

The UK is leading the way in wave and tidal (marine) power generation. The world’s first marine energy test facility was established in 2003 to kick start the development of the marine energy industry in the UK. Based in Orkney, Scotland, the European Marine Energy Centre (EMEC) has supported the deployment of more wave and tidal energy devices than at any other single site in the world. The centre was established with around £36 million of funding from the Scottish Government, Highlands and Islands Enterprise, the Carbon Trust, UK Government, Scottish Enterprise, the European Union and Orkney Islands Council, and is the only accredited wave and tidal test centre for marine renewable energy in the world, suitable for testing a number of full-scale devices simultaneously in some of the harshest weather conditions while producing electricity to the national grid.

Clients that have tested at the centre include Aquamarine Power, AW Energy, Pelamis Wave Power, Seatricity, ScottishPower Renewables and Wello on the wave site, and Alstom (formerly Tidal Generation Ltd), ANDRITZ HYDRO Hammerfest, Kawasaki Heavy Industries, Magallanes, Nautricity, Open Hydro, Scotrenewables Tidal Power, and Voith on the tidal site.

Leading the €11m FORESEA (Funding Ocean Renewable Energy through Strategic European Action) project, which provides funding support to ocean energy technology developers to access Europe’s world-leading ocean energy test facilities, EMEC will welcome a number of wave and tidal clients to their pipeline for testing on site.

Beyond device testing, EMEC also provides a wide range of consultancy and research services, and is working closely with Marine Scotland to streamline the consenting process for marine energy developers. EMEC is at the forefront in the development of international standards for marine energy, and is forging alliances with other countries, exporting its knowledge around the world to stimulate the development of a global marine renewables industry.^[10]

Environmental effects

Common environmental concerns associated with marine energy developments include:

• the risk of marine mammals and fish being struck by tidal turbine blades
• the effects of EMF and underwater noise emitted from operating marine energy devices
• the physical presence of marine energy projects and their potential to alter the behavior of marine mammals, fish, and seabirds with attraction or avoidance
• the potential effect on nearfield and farfield marine environment and processes such as sediment transport and water quality

The Tethys database provides access to scientific literature and general information on the potential environmental effects of marine energy.

BIOENERGY

Bioenergy is produced from a variety of organic materials, called biomass, such as wood, charcoal, dung and other manures for heat and power production, and agricultural crops for liquid biofuels. Most biomass is used in rural areas for cooking, lighting and space heating, generally by poorer populations in developing countries.

Modern biomass systems include dedicated crops or trees, residues from agriculture and forestry, and various organic waste streams.

Energy created by burning biomass creates greenhouse gas emissions, but at lower levels than burning fossil fuels like coal, oil or gas. However, bioenergy should only be used in limited applications, given potential negative environmental impacts related to large-scale increases in forest and bioenergy plantations, and resulting deforestation and land-use change.

Bioenergy is a form of renewable energy that is derived from organic matter, such as plant material and animal waste. Bioenergy can be used to generate electricity, heat homes and buildings, power vehicles, and provide fuel for industry. There are several types of bioenergy, including:

1. Biomass energy:

Biomass energy involves the use of organic materials, such as wood, agricultural crops, and waste materials, to generate electricity and heat. Biomass can be burned directly to produce heat or used to fuel power plants that generate electricity.

Advantages of biomass energy:

• It is a versatile source of energy that can be used for heating, electricity generation, and transportation.
• It is a renewable source of energy that can be sustainably harvested and grown.
• It can provide economic benefits to rural communities through the creation of jobs and income from the sale of biomass products.

Challenges of biomass energy:

• It can cause air pollution and emissions of greenhouse gases if not managed properly.
• It can compete with food production for land and resources, which can lead to issues with food security.
• It can also lead to biodiversity loss and land-use change if not managed sustainably.

2. Biogas energy:

Biogas energy involves the use of organic waste materials, such as manure, food waste, and sewage, to produce methane gas that can be burned to generate electricity and heat.

Advantages of biogas energy:

• It can reduce greenhouse gas emissions by capturing methane gas that would otherwise be released into the atmosphere.
• It can provide a sustainable way to manage organic waste materials and reduce pollution.
• It can provide economic benefits to rural communities through the creation of jobs and income from the sale of biogas products.

Challenges of biogas energy:

• It can be expensive to build and maintain biogas facilities.
• It requires a reliable source of organic waste materials to be economically viable.
• It can cause air pollution if not managed properly.

3. Biofuels:

Biofuels are fuels that are derived from organic matter, such as plant oils and animal fats. Biofuels can be used to power vehicles, heat homes and buildings, and generate electricity.

Advantages of biofuels:

• They can reduce greenhouse gas emissions and air pollution compared to fossil fuels.
• They can provide a sustainable and renewable source of energy for transportation.
• They can provide economic benefits to rural communities through the creation of jobs and income from the sale of biofuels products.

Challenges of biofuels:

• They can compete with food production for land and resources, which can lead to issues with food security.
• They can cause biodiversity loss and land-use change if not managed sustainably.
• Some types of biofuels, such as corn ethanol, can require significant amounts of energy to produce, which can offset their environmental benefits.

Overall, bioenergy has great potential to provide a sustainable and renewable source of energy that can reduce greenhouse gas emissions and promote economic development. However, it is important to manage bioenergy resources sustainably to minimize their environmental impacts and ensure their long-term viability.

Bioenergy is a source of energy from the organic material that makes up plants, known as biomass. Biomass contains carbon absorbed by plants through photosynthesis. When this biomass is used to produce energy, the carbon is released during combustion and simply returns to the atmosphere, making modern bioenergy a promising near zero-emission fuel.  

Modern bioenergy is the largest source of renewable energy globally, accounting for 55% of renewable energy and over 6% of global energy supply. The Net Zero Emissions by 2050 Scenario sees a rapid increase in the use of bioenergy to displace fossil fuels by 2030. Use of modern bioenergy has increased on average by about 7% per year between 2010 and 2021, and is on an upward trend. More efforts are needed to accelerate modern bioenergy deployment to get on track with the Net Zero Scenario, which sees deployment increase by 10% per year between 2021 and 2030, while simultaneously ensuring that bioenergy production does not incur negative social and environmental consequences. 

Bioenergy is an important pillar of decarbonisation in the energy transition as a near zero-emission fuel. Bioenergy is useful because there is flexibility in the contexts and sectors it can be used in, from solid bioenergy and biogases combusted for power and heat in homes and industrial plants to liquid biofuels used in cars, ships and airplanes. Furthermore, it can often take advantage of existing infrastructure – for instance, biomethane can use existing natural gas pipelines and end-user equipment, while many drop-in liquid biofuels can use existing oil distribution networks and be used in vehicles with only minor alterations.  

Bioenergy use needs to increase in a wide variety of applications by 2030 to get on track with the Net Zero Scenario, including the following:  

• Biojet kerosene used in air travel increases from nearly zero in 2021 to account for over 7% of all aviation fuel demand in 2030.  
• Liquid biofuel consumption quadruples from 2.1 mboe/d in 2021 to over 8 mboe/d in 2030, mainly for road transport.  
• Bioenergy use in industry increases substantially, from supplying a little over 11 EJ of energy in 2021 to over 17 EJ in 2030, mostly in cement, pulp and paper, and light industry.  
• Bioenergy used for electricity generation provides dispatchable, low-emission power to complement generation from variable renewables. Its use nearly doubles, from creating about 750 TWh of electricity (about 2.5% of total demand) in 2021 to about 1 350 TWh (about 3.5% of total demand) in 2030. 
• Bioenergy with carbon capture and storage – which creates negative emissions by capturing and storing bioenergy emissions that are already carbon-neutral – also plays a critical role. BECCS captured and stored 2 Mt of CO₂ in 2021, and increases to around 250 Mt of CO₂ in 2030, offsetting emissions from sectors where abatement will be most difficult.  

Total global bioenergy use in 2030 under the Net Zero Scenario is only about 20% higher than in 2021, although this by itself is quite misleading. Over 35% of the bioenergy used in 2021 was from biomass for traditional cooking methods – practices that are unsustainable, inefficient, polluting and linked to 5 million premature deaths in 2021 alone. The use of this traditional biomass falls to zero by 2030 in the Net Zero Scenario in order to achieve the UN Sustainable Development Goal 7 on Affordable and Clean Energy. Modern bioenergy usage, which excludes traditional uses of biomass, nearly doubles from about 42 EJ in 2021 to 80 EJ in 2030.  

Bioenergy comes from a variety of different sources. Some bioenergy sources – such as black liquor from paper production – are the by-product of an industrial process that would have taken place anyway. More commonly, though, bioenergy is sourced from purpose-grown crops or trees in a highly land-intensive process relative to other forms of energy. Unsustainable bioenergy production can have social consequences – such as impacts on food prices and competition for land use – as well as negative environmental externalities such as worsened biodiversity and net increases in emissions. Meeting the Net Zero Scenario will require bioenergy production to increase, but care must be taken to ensure that doing so does not result in significant negative effects for society or the environment. In accordance with these sustainability considerations, there is no expansion of cropland for bioenergy nor conversion of existing forested land into bioenergy crop production in the Net Zero Scenario. Under this scenario in 2030 60% of bioenergy supply comes from waste and residues that do not require land use. 

It is critical that the increased bioenergy production needed to get on track with the Net Zero Scenario does not create negative impacts on biodiversity, freshwater systems, food availability or human quality of life. Only bioenergy that reduces lifecycle GHG emissions while avoiding unacceptable social, environmental and economic impacts should receive policy support. The European Union, the United States (through minimum GHG thresholds in the RFS programme and the incorporation of indirect land use change into California’s LCFS) and Brazil have established frameworks to codify some aspects of liquid biofuel sustainability, but other countries must also ensure that rigorous sustainability governance is linked to bioenergy policy support. In addition to this, monitoring, reporting and verification frameworks should be employed to address accounting issues related to the use of bioenergy in power generation, especially in relation to negative emissions accounting for BECCS.  

National governments can employ a combination of regulatory measures such as mandates, low-carbon fuel standards and GHG intensity targets to incentivise modern bioenergy usage. These policies should be implemented within a larger framework for reducing emissions – such as emissions pricing – to ensure that policies provide the incentive to reduce emissions, not simply increase bioenergy demand. 

Bioenergy offers high flexibility in reducing emissions, able to replace fossil fuels in a variety of contexts. At the same time, sustainability constraints stemming from land use, social and environmental externalities preclude it from being as widely used as alternatives like electricity in the path to net zero. Bioenergy policy design should therefore target the highest-value uses for bioenergy in the energy sector, including its use in existing infrastructure, its potential to produce high energy density fuels for long-distance transport, its dispatchability to support the integration of variable renewables into the grid and its usefulness in meeting broader policy objectives, such as waste management and rural development. Power sector policies can design auctions suited to specific grid stability requirements and demand profiles (when power is needed at different times of the day and year), while fuel policies can incentivise use in hard-to-abate areas like aviation.  

Policies incentivising greater use of waste and residues as fuels will be important to get bioenergy on track. Supporting waste- and residue-based energy use in Latin America, China and ASEAN countries would be particularly fruitful as these regions possess significant feedstock resources. Relevant policies include de-risking measures such as loan guarantees and biofuel quotas for emerging fuels. The European Parliament, for example, adopted sustainable aviation fuel blending targets in July 2022 to support its expansion using waste- and residue-based fuels. Improving waste collection and sorting is also necessary to expand energy-from-waste (EfW) capacity. In Europe, policies that discourage sending waste to landfills (such as landfill bans or taxation) have prompted higher EfW development.  

Nanotechnology,

Materials science,

Green chemistry,

Drug discovery,

Synthetic biology,

Environmental chemistry,

Computational chemistry,

Analytical chemistry,

Food chemistry.

Bibliography

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